Car availability explained by the structural relationships between lifestyles, residential location, and underlying residential and travel attitudes

Veronique Van Acker, Patricia L. Mokhtarian, Frank Witlox, 2014, in Transport Policy

doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2014.05.006
Location Ghent, Belgium
Population General
Sample size 1878
Factor analysis type nan, nan rotation
Stepwise regression nan
Removal of insignificant variables yes
Reviewed by DS/MWC

Abstract

The majority of land use-travel behaviour studies only considers the direct influence of spatial characteristics on daily travel behaviour. However, this framework should be expanded. A first step is to explore the complex interdependencies of long-term lifestyle decisions, medium-term decisions about residential location and car ownership, and the underlying residential and travel attitudes. Travel behaviour should be considered within a hierarchy of decisions while considering the motivational background of these decisions. Using data from an Internet survey completed by +1800 respondents in Flanders, Belgium, this paper defines car ownership somewhat more broadly as car availability. Results of a structural equation model indicate a significant direct effect of the residential neighbourhood on car availability. However, effects are small compared to the influence of other variables such as stage of life and travel (mode) attitude, the latter referring to travel-related selfselection. Moreover, one should keep in mind that residential attitudes remain important in the initial selection of the residential neighbourhood and its spatial characteristics, indicating the need to control for residential self-selection.

Factors

Variable Pattern loading
Close to family and friends (Res preference/perception) 0.391
Close to leisure activities (Res preference/perception) 0.687
Close to public transport (Res preference/perception) 0.334
Close to shops, groceries (Res preference/perception) 0.738
Close to work (Res preference/perception) 0.349
Variable Pattern loading
Close to public transport (Res preference/perception) 0.375
Presence of bike paths (Res preference/perception) 0.863
Presence of sidewalks (Safety) 0.822
Traffic safety (Safety) 0.42
Variable Pattern loading
Neatness, tidiness (Res preference/perception) 0.286
Presence of green areas (Res preference/perception) 0.918
Quietness (Res preference/perception) 0.793
Variable Pattern loading
Neatness, tidiness (Res preference/perception) 0.552
Appearance of buildings, architecture (Res preference/perception) 0.318
Social safety, low crime (Safety) 0.766
Sufficient parking (Convenience) 0.454
Traffic safety (Safety) 0.403
Variable Pattern loading
Frequent contact with neighbors (Res preference/perception) 0.777
Good contact with neighbors (Res preference/perception) 0.761
Variable Pattern loading
According to family and friends, I should bike more often (Social norms) 0.724
According to family and friends, I should use my car only when absolutely necessary (Social norms) 0.323
According to family and friends, I should use public transport more often (Social norms) 0.757
Variable Pattern loading
Arriving at my destination is the only good thing about daily travel (Convenience) 0.562
Daily travel is boring (Convenience) 0.876
I like to discover new and unfamiliar places (Lifestyle) -0.294
I love being on the road (Mode-liking) -0.757
Traffic makes me nervous (Safety) 0.368
Travel time is wasted time (Convenience) 0.643
Variable Pattern loading
According to family and friends, I should use my car only when absolutely necessary (Social norms) 0.301
According to family and friends, traffic problems are over-exaggerated (Social norms) -0.263
Car traffic causes serious problems (Transport policy) 0.637
I myself can contribute to a solution for traffic problems (Transport policy) 0.596
It does not matter whether I use my car or not. Other people still drive their cars. (Transport policy) -0.486
Traffic makes me nervous (Safety) 0.27
Variable Pattern loading
Car use: activities while traveling (Convenience) 0.207
Car use: comfortable (Comfort) 0.616
Car use: flexible (Convenience) 0.596
Car use: good for image (Social norms) 0.294
Car use: privacy offering (Comfort) 0.472
Car use: relaxing (Comfort) 0.372
Car use: reliable (Convenience) 0.625
Car use: safe (Safety) 0.454
Car use: time-saving (Convenience) 0.582
Variable Pattern loading
Car use: cheap (Cost) -0.483
Car use: environment-friendly (Environmentalism) -0.48
Car use: healthy (Lifestyle) -0.677
Variable Pattern loading
Cycling: comfortable (Comfort) 0.515
Walking: comfortable (Comfort) 0.461
Cycling: flexible (Convenience) 0.353
Walking: flexible (Convenience) 0.346
Cycling: good for image (Social norms) 0.233
Walking: good for image (Social norms) 0.267
Cycling: privacy-offering (Comfort) 0.634
Walking: privacy-offering (Comfort) 0.606
Cycling: reliable (Convenience) 0.331
Walking: reliable (Convenience) 0.321
Cycling: safe (Safety) 0.357
Walking: safe (Safety) 0.331
Cycling: time-saving (Convenience) 0.374
Walking: time-saving (Convenience) 0.223
Variable Pattern loading
Cycling: cheap (Cost) 0.658
Walking: cheap (Cost) 0.615
Cycling: environment-friendly (Environmentalism) 0.626
Walking: environment-friendly (Environmentalism) 0.557
Cycling: flexible (Convenience) 0.322
Walking: flexible (Convenience) 0.215
Cycling: relaxing (Comfort) 0.265
Walking: relaxing (Comfort) 0.304
Walking: reliable (Convenience) 0.333
Variable Pattern loading
Public transport: comfortable (Comfort) 0.781
Public transport: relaxing (Comfort) 0.471
Public transport: safe (Safety) 0.296
Variable Pattern loading
Public transport: activities while traveling (Convenience) 0.34
Public transport: cheap (Cost) 0.301
Public transport: environment-friendly (Environmentalism) 0.65
Public transport: good for image (Social norms) 0.249
Public transport: healthy (Lifestyle) 0.248
Public transport: safe (Safety) 0.319
Variable Pattern loading
Public transport: cheap (Cost) 0.218
Public transport: flexible (Convenience) 0.633
Public transport: privacy-offering (Comfort) 0.249
Public transport: reliable (Convenience) 0.284
Public transport: time-saving (Convenience) 0.323
Variable Pattern loading
What aspects are important? Sunny (Lifestyle) 0.582
What aspects are important? Relaxation (Lifestyle) 0.408
What aspects are important? Good food (Lifestyle) 0.329
What aspects are important? Sports accomodation (Lifestyle) 0.307
What type of accomodation? Resort, holiday village (Not an attitude) 0.229
Variable Pattern loading
What expenses are important? Inexpensive, low-budget (Cost) 0.2
What aspects are important? Familiar places (Lifestyle) 0.34
What aspects are important? Close to home (Lifestyle) 0.324
What aspects are important? No language problems (Lifestyle) 0.251
What aspects are important? Unfamiliar places, adventure (Lifestyle) -0.226
Variable Pattern loading
What type of accomodation? Hotel (Not an attitude) 0.24
What aspects are important? Culture (Lifestyle) 0.437
What type of accomodation? Local people (Lifestyle) 0.387
How do you travel? By airplane (Not an attitude) 0.341
What aspects are important? Nature (Lifestyle) 0.328
What aspects are important? Unfamiliar places, adventure (Lifestyle) 0.211
Variable Pattern loading
How many holidays lasted one week or longer? (Not an attitude) 0.818
How many times did you spend a holiday the past year? (Not an attitude) 0.766
What type of accomodation? Second home (Not an attitude) 0.256
Variable Pattern loading
What expenses are important? Inexpensive, low-budget (Cost) -0.264
How do you travel? By car (Not an attitude) 0.686
What type of accomodation? Rental house (Not an attitude) 0.389
How do you travel? By train (Not an attitude) -0.277
How do you travel? By airplane (Not an attitude) -0.29
What aspects are important? Nature (Lifestyle) 0.243
Variable Pattern loading
Literary subjects: history (Lifestyle) 0.612
Literary subjects: art, architecture (Lifestyle) 0.522
Literary subjects: politics, news magazine (Lifestyle) 0.375
Literary subjects: religion, spirituality (Lifestyle) 0.337
Literary subjects: novel (Lifestyle) 0.232
Variable Pattern loading
Literary subjects: thriller, adventure (Lifestyle) 0.549
Literary subjects: fantasy, SF (Lifestyle) 0.427
Literary subjects: horror (Lifestyle) 0.421
Literary subjects: detective, crime story (Lifestyle) 0.4
Literary subjects: humor, comedy (Lifestyle) 0.387
Literary subjects: comic book, cartoon (Lifestyle) 0.356
Variable Pattern loading
Literary subjects: housing/decoration (Lifestyle) 0.581
Literary subjects: gardening (Lifestyle) 0.558
Literary subjects: DIY (Lifestyle) 0.481
Literary subjects: cooking (Lifestyle) 0.38
Literary subjects: health (Lifestyle) 0.338
Literary subjects: pets (Lifestyle) 0.259
Literary subjects: environment, nature (Lifestyle) 0.286
Variable Pattern loading
Literary subjects: thriller, adventure (Lifestyle) -0.288
Literary subjects: detective, crime story (Lifestyle) -0.3
Literary subjects: humor, comedy (Lifestyle) 0.271
Literary subjects: novel (Lifestyle) -0.391
Literary subjects: computer, ICT (Lifestyle) 0.331
Literary subjects: sports (Lifestyle) 0.325
Literary subjects: men's magazine (Lifestyle) 0.242
Literary subjects: finance, business, trade (Lifestyle) 0.242
Variable Pattern loading
Literary subjects: humor, comedy (Lifestyle) 0.233
Literary subjects: women's magazine (Lifestyle) 0.582
Literary subjects: fashion (Lifestyle) 0.528
Literary subjects: entertainment, showbiz (Lifestyle) 0.365
Literary subjects: science (Lifestyle) -0.318
Literary subjects: environment, nature (Lifestyle) -0.294
Variable Pattern loading
Sports: cycling (Lifestyle) 0.213
Recreational activities: shopping (Lifestyle) -0.258
Recreational activities: going for dinner, to restaurant (Lifestyle) -0.25
Recreational activities: listening to the radio, to music (Lifestyle) 0.239
Recreational activities: cooking (Lifestyle) -0.203
Cultural activities: concert (Lifestyle) 0.251
Hobbies: computer, web design (Lifestyle) 0.376
Hobbies: playing music (Lifestyle) 0.356
Hobbies: photography (Lifestyle) 0.244
Recreational activities: cultural and creative activities (Lifestyle) 0.235
Variable Pattern loading
Cultural activities: museum, exhibition (Lifestyle) 0.526
Cultural activities: opera, musical (Lifestyle) 0.509
Cultural activities: concert (Lifestyle) 0.411
Hobbies: reading (Lifestyle) 0.385
Cultural activities: library (Lifestyle) 0.35
Cultural activities: ballet, dance performance (Lifestyle) 0.285
Sports: walking (Lifestyle) 0.278
Hobbies: playacting (Lifestyle) 0.258
Variable Pattern loading
Recreational activities: a night out in a disco or at a party (Lifestyle) 0.896
Cultural activities: party (Lifestyle) 0.617
Cultural activities: disco, club (Lifestyle) 0.569
Variable Pattern loading
Recreational activities: going for dinner, to restaurant (Lifestyle) 0.362
Recreational activities: listening to the radio, to music (Lifestyle) 0.342
Recreational activities: visiting family and friends (Lifestyle) 0.298
Recreational activities: inviting family and friends (Lifestyle) 0.241
Recreational activities: cooking (Lifestyle) 0.216
Variable Pattern loading
Recreational activities: volunteering, club/social life (Lifestyle) 0.903
Hobbies: volunteering, club/social life (Lifestyle) 0.888
Member of a club (Lifestyle) 0.24
Variable Pattern loading
Leisure: socially engaged (Lifestyle) 0.843
Literary interests: culture and current events (Lifestyle) 0.444
Holiday: culture lover (Lifestyle) 0.423
Literary interests: non-emotional readers (Lifestyle) -0.305
Variable Pattern loading
Leisure: party people (Lifestyle) 0.937
Leisure: traditional family activities (Lifestyle) -0.246
Literary interests: style and trends (Lifestyle) 0.262
Variable Pattern loading
Leisure: sports (Lifestyle) 0.741
Literary interests: home improvement, cocooning (Lifestyle) 0.628
Holiday: self-organized, family-oriented (Lifestyle) 0.253
Variable Pattern loading
Leisure: traditional family activities (Lifestyle) 0.607
Literary interests: style and trends (Lifestyle) 0.598
Holiday: all-in-one (Lifestyle) 0.444
Holiday: frequent traveler with second home (Lifestyle) -0.2
Variable Pattern loading
Leisure: creative (Lifestyle) 0.922
Literary interests: non-emotional, nonfiction (Lifestyle) 0.289
Holiday: low-budget, active and adventurous (Lifestyle) 0.246
Variable Pattern loading
Presence of children in the household (Not an attitude) 0.242
Household position as a child (Not an attitude) -0.321
Highly educated (Not an attitude) 0.273
Age (Not an attitude) 0.558
Household income (Not an attitude) 0.446
Full-time employment (Not an attitude) 0.444
Variable Pattern loading
Presence of children in the household (Not an attitude) 0.946
Number of older children in the household (+18 y) (Not an attitude) 0.938
Household position as a child (Not an attitude) 0.739
Highly educated (Not an attitude) -0.39
Full-time employment (Not an attitude) -0.32
Variable Pattern loading
Presence of children in the household (Not an attitude) 0.361
Number of older children in the household (+18 y) (Not an attitude) -0.271
Number of young children in the household (-6 y) (Not an attitude) 0.937
Variable Pattern loading
Population density (Not an attitude) 0.953
Built up index (Not an attitude) 0.718
Job density (Not an attitude) 0.532
Land use mix (Not an attitude) -0.407
Potential accessibility 5 minutes (Not an attitude) 0.356
Variable Pattern loading
Potential accessibility 30 minutes (Not an attitude) 0.464
Potential accessibility 10 minutes (Not an attitude) 0.994
Potential accessibility 15 minutes (Not an attitude) 0.86
Potential accessibility 5 minutes (Not an attitude) 0.625
Variable Pattern loading
Distance to railway station level 1,2,3,4,5 (Not an attitude) 1.061
Distance to railway station level 1,2,3,4,5,6 (Not an attitude) 0.995
Distance to railway station level 1,2,3,4 (Not an attitude) 0.768
Distance to railway station level 1,2,3 (Not an attitude) 0.443
Distance to city level 1,2,3,4,5 (Not an attitude) 0.35
Variable Pattern loading
Distance to railway station level 1,2,3 (Not an attitude) 0.361
Distance to railway station level 1 (Not an attitude) 0.356
Distance to city level 1,2,3 (Not an attitude) 0.929
Distance to city level 1,2,3,4 (Not an attitude) 0.797
Distance to city level 1,2 (Not an attitude) 0.705
Distance to railway station level 1,2 (Not an attitude) 0.622
Distance to city level 1,2,3,4,5 (Not an attitude) 0.515
Variable Pattern loading
Potential accessibility 60 minutes (Not an attitude) 1.023
Potential accessibility 45 minutes (Not an attitude) 0.969
Distance to city level 1 (Not an attitude) -0.918
Potential accessibility 30 minutes (Not an attitude) 0.553
Distance to railway station level 1 (Not an attitude) -0.44
Distance to railway station level 1,2 (Not an attitude) -0.314

Models

Source variable Target variable Effect p-value Effect type
Student living at home Culture lover -0.055 <0.1 direct_effect
Student living at home Friends and Trends 0.211 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Home-oriented but active family -0.333 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Low-budget and active-creative 0.218 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Home-oriented traditional family 0.211 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Culture lover -0.099 <0.1 direct_effect
Older family (working) Friends and Trends -0.295 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Home-oriented but active family 0.357 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Home-oriented traditional family -0.201 <0.05 direct_effect
Young family Culture lover -0.575 <0.05 direct_effect
Young family Friends and Trends -0.138 <0.05 direct_effect
Young family Home-oriented but active family 0.108 <0.1 direct_effect
Young family Low-budget and active-creative -0.19 <0.05 direct_effect
Young family Home-oriented traditional family 0.187 <0.05 direct_effect
Female Culture lover 0.242 <0.05 direct_effect
Female Home-oriented but active family 0.066 <0.05 direct_effect
Female Low-budget and active-creative -0.345 <0.05 direct_effect
Female Home-oriented traditional family 0.3 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Young family 0.509 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented but active family Young family 0.12 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Young family -0.406 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Location relative to regional center 0.17 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Density -0.166 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Car alternatives 0.201 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Open space and quietness 0.169 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Safety and neatness -0.079 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Location relative to regional center -0.144 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Car alternatives -0.125 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Safety and neatness -0.135 <0.05 direct_effect
Young family Social contact 0.055 <0.05 direct_effect
Female Car alternatives 0.076 <0.05 direct_effect
Female Open space and quietness 0.091 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Density 0.123 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Car alternatives 0.082 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Open space and quietness -0.128 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Safety and neatness -0.078 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Accessibility 0.083 <0.05 direct_effect
Friends and Trends Car alternatives -0.107 <0.05 direct_effect
Friends and Trends Open space and quietness -0.064 <0.1 direct_effect
Friends and Trends Social contact 0.061 <0.05 direct_effect
Low-budget and active-creative Open space and quietness 0.103 <0.05 direct_effect
Low-budget and active-creative Safety and neatness -0.123 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented but active family Local accessibility -0.062 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented but active family Car alternatives 0.123 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented but active family Open space and quietness 0.284 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented but active family Safety and neatness -0.059 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Regional accessibility -0.098 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Car alternatives -0.119 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Open space and quietness -0.241 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Safety and neatness 0.284 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Accessibility 0.128 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to local center Car alternatives -0.217 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to local center Open space and quietness -0.258 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to local center Safety and neatness 0.154 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to local center Social contact 0.183 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to regional center Car alternatives -0.217 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to regional center Open space and quietness -0.343 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to regional center Safety and neatness 0.232 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to regional center Social contact 0.25 <0.05 direct_effect
Local accessibility Car alternatives 0.593 <0.05 direct_effect
Local accessibility Open space and quietness 0.361 <0.05 direct_effect
Local accessibility Safety and neatness -0.282 <0.05 direct_effect
Local accessibility Social contact -0.226 <0.05 direct_effect
Regional accessibility Car alternatives 0.746 <0.05 direct_effect
Regional accessibility Safety and neatness -0.174 <0.05 direct_effect
Regional accessibility Accessibility -0.063 <0.05 direct_effect
Regional accessibility Social contact -0.138 <0.05 direct_effect
Density Car alternatives 0.339 <0.05 direct_effect
Density Open space and quietness 0.815 <0.05 direct_effect
Density Safety and neatness -0.427 <0.05 direct_effect
Density Social contact -0.315 <0.05 direct_effect
Car alternatives Regional accessibility -0.402 <0.05 direct_effect
Open space and quietness Density -0.629 <0.05 direct_effect
Accessibility Location relative to local center 0.06 <0.05 direct_effect
Accessibility Density 0.171 <0.05 direct_effect
Pro-environment Location relative to local center -0.065 <0.05 direct_effect
Pro-environment Density 0.172 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Car availability -0.268 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Car comfort 0.103 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Public transport positive effects 0.075 <0.05 direct_effect
Student living at home Cycling/walking positive effects 0.09 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Car availability 0.415 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Frustrated traveller 0.062 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Car comfort -0.092 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Public transport positive effects -0.123 <0.05 direct_effect
Older family (working) Cycling/walking positive effects -0.155 <0.05 direct_effect
Young family Car availability 0.147 <0.05 direct_effect
Female Public transport positive effects -0.065 <0.05 direct_effect
Female Cycling/walking comfort -0.06 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Frustrated traveller -0.09 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Pro-environment 0.202 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Car comfort -0.091 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Public transport positive effects 0.115 <0.05 direct_effect
Culture lover Cycling/walking comfort 0.066 <0.05 direct_effect
Friends and Trends Pro-environment -0.099 <0.05 direct_effect
Friends and Trends Public transport comfort -0.128 <0.05 direct_effect
Friends and Trends Cycling/walking comfort -0.124 <0.05 direct_effect
Low-budget and active-creative Frustrated traveller -0.086 <0.05 direct_effect
Low-budget and active-creative Pro-environment -0.056 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented but active family Pro-environment 0.109 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented but active family Car comfort 0.105 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Pro-environment -0.218 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Car comfort 0.174 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Public transport positive effects 0.074 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Public transport comfort -0.078 <0.05 direct_effect
Home-oriented traditional family Cycling/walking positive effects 0.073 <0.05 direct_effect
Location relative to regional center Car availability 0.098 <0.05 direct_effect
Local accessibility Car availability -0.099 <0.05 direct_effect
Density Car availability -0.097 <0.05 direct_effect
Frustrated traveller Public transport positive effects 0.06 <0.05 direct_effect
Frustrated traveller Public transport comfort -0.094 <0.05 direct_effect
Frustrated traveller Public transport time-saving -0.079 <0.05 direct_effect
Frustrated traveller Cycling/walking comfort -0.08 <0.05 direct_effect
Pro-environment Car availability -0.156 <0.05 direct_effect
Pro-environment Car comfort -0.29 <0.05 direct_effect
Pro-environment Car negative effects 0.132 <0.05 direct_effect
Pro-environment Public transport comfort 0.136 <0.05 direct_effect
Pro-environment Cycling/walking comfort 0.178 <0.05 direct_effect
Frequent car user Car comfort 0.061 <0.05 direct_effect
Frequent car user Cycling/walking positive effects -0.054 <0.05 direct_effect
Frequent car user Cycling/walking comfort -0.067 <0.05 direct_effect
Car comfort Car availability 0.138 <0.05 direct_effect
Car availability Frustrated traveller -0.079 <0.05 direct_effect
Car availability Frequent car user 0.184 <0.05 direct_effect
Car availability Public transport comfort -0.12 <0.05 direct_effect
Car availability Public transport time-saving -0.053 <0.1 direct_effect
Car availability Cycling/walking positive effects -0.096 <0.05 direct_effect
Car availability Cycling/walking comfort -0.083 <0.05 direct_effect

The Attitudes and Travel Database is produced with support from the Center for Teaching Old Models New Tricks at Arizona State University, a University Transportation Center sponsored by the US Department of Transportation through Grant No. 69A3551747116.

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