Travel mode attitudes, urban context, and demographics: do they interact differently for bicycle commuting and cycling for other purposes?

Gao, J., Ettema, D., Helbich, M., Kamphuis, C.B.M., 2019, in Transportation

doi:10.1007/s11116-019-10005-x
Location Netherlands
Population General
Sample size 2673
Factor analysis type principal components, varimax rotation
Stepwise regression no
Removal of insignificant variables no
Reviewed by LCM

Abstract

This study examined whether interactions between travel mode attitudes, urbanization level, and socio-demographics were different for bicycle commuting and cycling for other purposes. Data were obtained from the 2014 wave of the Netherlands mobility panel (MPN). In total, 2673 respondents (18 + years) who had recorded at least one trip on the days covered by the survey were included in the sample. Four outcomes were constructed, two of which concerned commuting-related cycling: any commuting-related bicycle usage (yes vs. no) and average cycling duration (in hours per weekday). Likewise, two similar outcome variables concerning cycling for other proposes were constructed. These outcomes were analyzed by means of Tobit regression models (cycling duration) and binary logistic models (any bicycle usage). Attitudinal factors concerning different travel modes, namely bus, car, cycling, and train, were constructed by means of factor analysis. The results showed that a positive attitude toward cycling was positively related to bicycle commuting duration, but this association was less strong among those with a positive attitude toward bus use. Having a positive cycling attitude had a weaker association with both bicycle commuting usage and duration in those who do not always have a car available. Regarding cycling for other purposes, cycling attitude had a stronger positive association with cycling duration among residents of very highly urbanized area, compared to residents of less urbanized areas. The available evidence, though limited, suggests that targeting attitudes can have a measurable impact on bicycling, but not to the same extend among all people. © 2019, The Author(s).

Factors

Variable Pattern loading
Travelling by bus/tram/metro is pleasurable (Comfort) 0.811
Travelling by bus/tram/metro is comfortable (Comfort) 0.805
Travelling by bus/tram/metro provides flexibility (Convenience) 0.783
Travelling by bus/tram/metro saves me time (Convenience) 0.764
Travelling by bus/tram/metro is relaxing (Comfort) 0.777
Personal impression of the bus/tram/metro (Mode-liking) 0.614
Variable Pattern loading
Travelling by car is pleasurable (Comfort) 0.829
Travelling by car is comfortable (Comfort) 0.82
Travelling by car is relaxing (Comfort) 0.755
Travelling by car provides flexibility (Convenience) 0.71
Travelling by car is safe (Safety) 0.699
Personal impression of the car (Mode-liking) 0.685
Travelling by car saves me time (Convenience) 0.709
Variable Pattern loading
Cycling is pleasurable (Mode-liking) 0.852
Cycling is relaxing (Comfort) 0.838
Cycling is comfortable (Comfort) 0.805
Cycling provides flexibility (Convenience) 0.713
Personal impression of the bicycle, e-bike (Mode-liking) 0.67
Cycling is safe (Safety) 0.595
Cycling saves me time (Convenience) 0.602
Variable Pattern loading
Travelling by train is relaxing (Comfort) 0.769
Travelling by train is comfortable (Comfort) 0.745
Travelling by train is pleasurable (Comfort) 0.742
Travelling by train is safe (Safety) 0.699
Personal impression of the train (Mode-liking) 0.669

Models

Dependent variable Whether or not a respondent commutes by bicycle
Model type Binary logit
Sample size 2673
R2 nan
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (McFadden) 0.177
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence -1154.8988
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -1.968 0.0
Age 30-39 0.0655 0.751
Age 40-49 0.403 0.034
Age 50-59 0.507 0.007
Age 60-69 0.589 0.027
Age 70+ 0.211 0.6
Female 0.288 0.007
Medium education -0.00126 0.993
High education 0.0125 0.937
HH income 26,000-65,000 euros -0.458 0.001
HH income 65,000+ euros -0.541 0.001
Children < 12 years -0.186 0.233
Student 0.72 0.0
Retired people/other unemployed -1.792 0.0
Not always a car available 1.019 0.0
No car available 0.831 0.0
Very highly urbanized 0.576 0.0
Highly urbanized 0.499 0.001
Moderately urbanized 0.565 0.0
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor -0.0207 0.705
Cycling attitudes factor 0.555 0.0
Car attitudes factor -0.265 0.0
Train attitudes factor -0.0525 0.325
Dependent variable Whether or not a respondent commutes by bicycle
Model type Binary logit
Sample size 2673
R2 nan
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (McFadden) 0.185
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence -1144.2881
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -2.01 0.0
Age 30-39 0.0546 0.798
Age 40-49 0.343 0.09
Age 50-59 0.462 0.02
Age 60-69 0.604 0.032
Age 70+ 0.158 0.716
Female 0.309 0.006
Medium education 0.00119 0.994
High education 0.0304 0.854
HH income 26,000-65,000 euros -0.486 0.001
HH income 65,000+ euros -0.576 0.001
Children < 12 years -0.0955 0.556
Student 0.692 0.001
Retired people/other unemployed -1.756 0.0
Not always a car available 1.101 0.0
No car available 0.868 0.0
Very highly urbanized 0.548 0.001
Highly urbanized 0.491 0.001
Moderately urbanized 0.588 0.0
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor -0.0161 0.784
Cycling attitudes factor 0.531 0.077
Car attitudes factor -0.251 0.0
Train attitudes factor -0.063 0.277
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 30-39 -0.0386 0.873
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 40-49 0.189 0.403
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 50-59 0.163 0.48
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 60-69 0.00542 0.986
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 70+ 0.204 0.662
Cycling attitudes factor*Female -0.0729 0.572
Cycling attitudes factor*Medium education 0.156 0.339
Cycling attitudes factor*High education 0.115 0.525
Cycling attitudes factor*HH income 26,000-65,000 euros 0.603 0.0
Cycling attitudes factor*HH income 65,000+ income 0.147 0.48
Cycling attitudes factor*Children < 12 years -0.376 0.04
Cycling attitudes factor*Student -0.0565 0.803
Cycling attitudes factor*Retired people/other unemployed -0.158 0.514
Cycling attitudes factor*Not always a car available -0.332 0.029
Cycling attitudes factor*No car available -0.0566 0.773
Cycling attitudes factor*Very highly urbanized 0.185 0.333
Cycling attitudes factor*Highly urbanized 0.0455 0.79
Cycling attitudes factor*Moderately urbanized -0.0367 0.839
Cycling attitudes factor*Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor -0.0572 0.361
Cycling attitudes factor*Car attitudes factor -0.0479 0.441
Cycling attitudes factor*Train attitudes factor 0.0373 0.515
Dependent variable How long a respondent commutes by bicycle
Model type Tobit regression
Sample size 2673
R2 nan
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (McFadden) 0.156
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence -1288.928
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -0.803 0.0
Age 30-39 0.038 0.632
Age 40-49 0.165 0.025
Age 50-59 0.213 0.003
Age 60-69 0.283 0.005
Age 70+ 0.106 0.459
Female 0.077 0.062
Medium education -0.034 0.542
High education 0.018 0.763
HH income 26,000-65,000 euros -0.164 0.002
HH income 65,000+ euros -0.167 0.009
Children < 12 years -0.079 0.189
Student 0.269 0.0
Retired people/other unemployed -0.705 0.0
Not always a car available 0.397 0.0
No car available 0.34 0.0
Very highly urbanized 0.197 0.002
Highly urbanized 0.171 0.002
Moderately urbanized 0.179 0.002
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor 0.003 0.886
Cycling attitudes factor 0.208 0.0
Car attitudes factor -0.086 0.0
Train attitudes factor -0.034 0.096
Dependent variable How long a respondent commutes by bicycle
Model type Tobit regression
Sample size 2673
R2 nan
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (McFadden) 0.166
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence -1275.0898
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -0.819 0.0
Age 30-39 0.045 0.576
Age 40-49 0.155 0.042
Age 50-59 0.195 0.01
Age 60-69 0.276 0.008
Age 70+ 0.101 0.495
Female 0.09 0.035
Medium education -0.034 0.546
High education 0.025 0.685
HH income 26,000-65,000 euros -0.173 0.002
HH income 65,000+ euros -0.177 0.007
Children < 12 years -0.055 0.37
Student 0.266 0.001
Retired people/other unemployed -0.681 0.0
Not always a car available 0.412 0.0
No car available 0.341 0.0
Very highly urbanized 0.187 0.004
Highly urbanized 0.167 0.004
Moderately urbanized 0.194 0.001
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor 0.008 0.715
Cycling attitudes factor 0.161 0.147
Car attitudes factor -0.084 0.0
Train attitudes factor -0.033 0.13
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 30-39 -0.073 0.428
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 40-49 0.039 0.644
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 50-59 0.068 0.431
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 60-69 0.033 0.774
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 70+ 0.052 0.747
Cycling attitudes factor*Female -0.059 0.224
Cycling attitudes factor*Medium education 0.101 0.102
Cycling attitudes factor*High education 0.094 0.165
Cycling attitudes factor*HH income 26,000-65,000 euros 0.049 0.422
Cycling attitudes factor*HH income 65,000+ income 0.084 0.274
Cycling attitudes factor*Children < 12 years -0.143 0.041
Cycling attitudes factor*Student -0.019 0.823
Cycling attitudes factor*Retired people/other unemployed -0.064 0.471
Cycling attitudes factor*Not always a car available -0.106 0.064
Cycling attitudes factor*No car available -0.015 0.835
Cycling attitudes factor*Very highly urbanized 0.093 0.2
Cycling attitudes factor*Highly urbanized 0.028 0.663
Cycling attitudes factor*Moderately urbanized -0.039 0.571
Cycling attitudes factor*Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor -0.038 0.1
Cycling attitudes factor*Car attitudes factor -0.006 0.795
Cycling attitudes factor*Train attitudes factor 0.005 0.818
Dependent variable Whether or not a respondent bicycles
Model type Binary logit
Sample size 2673
R2 nan
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (McFadden) 0.1184
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence -1568.0429
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -1.757 0.0
Age 30-39 0.153 0.387
Age 40-49 0.182 0.267
Age 50-59 0.387 0.018
Age 60-69 0.557 0.007
Age 70+ 0.553 0.018
Female 0.553 0.0
Medium education -0.0496 0.677
High education -0.000373 0.998
HH income 26,000-65,000 euros -0.0944 0.42
HH income 65,000+ euros -0.0735 0.607
Children < 12 years 0.31 0.017
Student 0.422 0.023
Retired people/other unemployed 0.698 0.0
Not always a car available 0.723 0.0
No car available 0.591 0.0
Very highly urbanized 0.423 0.002
Highly urbanized 0.141 0.228
Moderately urbanized 0.347 0.004
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor 0.0297 0.519
Cycling attitudes factor 0.582 0.0
Car attitudes factor -0.187 0.0
Train attitudes factor 0.129 0.004
Dependent variable Whether or not a respondent bicycles
Model type Binary logit
Sample size 2673
R2 nan
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (McFadden) 0.131
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence -1546.1
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -1.758 0.0
Age 30-39 0.126 0.477
Age 40-49 0.182 0.27
Age 50-59 0.38 0.021
Age 60-69 0.534 0.011
Age 70+ 0.533 0.028
Female 0.521 0.0
Medium education -0.0468 0.699
High education -0.0115 0.93
HH income 26,000-65,000 euros -0.116 0.33
HH income 65,000+ euros -0.0279 0.846
Children < 12 years 0.33 0.012
Student 0.406 0.028
Retired people/other unemployed 0.695 0.0
Not always a car available 0.756 0.0
No car available 0.644 0.0
Very highly urbanized 0.434 0.002
Highly urbanized 0.158 0.184
Moderately urbanized 0.329 0.008
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor 0.0217 0.651
Cycling attitudes factor -0.0185 0.935
Car attitudes factor -0.193 0.0
Train attitudes factor 0.133 0.006
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 30-39 0.177 0.367
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 40-49 0.201 0.262
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 50-59 0.318 0.086
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 60-69 0.515 0.031
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 70+ 0.623 0.026
Cycling attitudes factor*Female 0.212 0.044
Cycling attitudes factor*Medium education -0.141 0.3
Cycling attitudes factor*High education 0.0139 0.926
Cycling attitudes factor*HH income 26,000-65,000 euros 0.233 0.082
Cycling attitudes factor*HH income 65,000+ income -0.128 0.441
Cycling attitudes factor*Children < 12 years -0.156 0.282
Cycling attitudes factor*Student 0.269 0.179
Cycling attitudes factor*Retired people/other unemployed 0.152 0.314
Cycling attitudes factor*Not always a car available 0.0978 0.469
Cycling attitudes factor*No car available -0.142 0.363
Cycling attitudes factor*Very highly urbanized 0.213 0.158
Cycling attitudes factor*Highly urbanized 0.105 0.43
Cycling attitudes factor*Moderately urbanized 0.292 0.046
Cycling attitudes factor*Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor 0.0144 0.778
Cycling attitudes factor*Car attitudes factor -0.019 0.71
Cycling attitudes factor*Train attitudes factor -0.0288 0.531
Dependent variable How long a respondent bicycles
Model type Tobit regression
Sample size 2673
R2 nan
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (McFadden) 0.098
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence -1974.022
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -0.761 0.0
Age 30-39 0.035 0.649
Age 40-49 0.096 0.176
Age 50-59 0.175 0.014
Age 60-69 0.327 0.0
Age 70+ 0.198 0.043
Female 0.135 0.001
Medium education -0.046 0.358
High education -0.043 0.426
HH income 26,000-65,000 euros -0.091 0.069
HH income 65,000+ euros -0.085 0.164
Children < 12 years 0.215 0.0
Student 0.171 0.033
Retired people/other unemployed 0.379 0.0
Not always a car available 0.241 0.0
No car available 0.251 0.0
Very highly urbanized 0.192 0.001
Highly urbanized 0.039 0.435
Moderately urbanized 0.135 0.009
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor 0.034 0.074
Cycling attitudes factor 0.24 0.0
Car attitudes factor -0.075 0.001
Train attitudes factor 0.03 0.114
Dependent variable How long a respondent bicycles
Model type Tobit regression
Sample size 2673
R2 nan
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (McFadden) 0.106
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence -1955.7158
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -0.762 0.0
Age 30-39 0.025 0.742
Age 40-49 0.098 0.168
Age 50-59 0.168 0.018
Age 60-69 0.301 0.001
Age 70+ 0.165 0.096
Female 0.135 0.001
Medium education -0.037 0.459
High education -0.031 0.573
HH income 26,000-65,000 euros -0.101 0.043
HH income 65,000+ euros -0.073 0.232
Children < 12 years 0.223 0.0
Student 0.166 0.038
Retired people/other unemployed 0.376 0.0
Not always a car available 0.255 0.0
No car available 0.277 0.0
Very highly urbanized 0.183 0.002
Highly urbanized 0.041 0.422
Moderately urbanized 0.132 0.011
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor 0.032 0.11
Cycling attitudes factor 0.115 0.0
Car attitudes factor -0.073 0.452
Train attitudes factor 0.031 0.121
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 30-39 0.05 0.556
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 40-49 0.045 0.564
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 50-59 0.099 0.21
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 60-69 0.186 0.05
Cycling attitudes factor*Age 70+ 0.224 0.044
Cycling attitudes factor*Female 0.012 0.785
Cycling attitudes factor*Medium education -0.118 0.035
Cycling attitudes factor*High education -0.073 0.232
Cycling attitudes factor*HH income 26,000-65,000 euros 0.096 0.081
Cycling attitudes factor*HH income 65,000+ income 0.009 0.899
Cycling attitudes factor*Children < 12 years -0.069 0.266
Cycling attitudes factor*Student 0.104 0.232
Cycling attitudes factor*Retired people/other unemployed 0.039 0.523
Cycling attitudes factor*Not always a car available -0.008 0.888
Cycling attitudes factor*No car available -0.082 0.193
Cycling attitudes factor*Very highly urbanized 0.133 0.035
Cycling attitudes factor*Highly urbanized 0.043 0.443
Cycling attitudes factor*Moderately urbanized 0.082 0.172
Cycling attitudes factor*Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor -0.0002 0.992
Cycling attitudes factor*Car attitudes factor -0.012 0.568
Cycling attitudes factor*Train attitudes factor -0.014 0.484

The Attitudes and Travel Database is produced with support from the Center for Teaching Old Models New Tricks at Arizona State University, a University Transportation Center sponsored by the US Department of Transportation through Grant No. 69A3551747116.

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