Understanding the demand for travel: it's not purely 'derived'

Mokhtarian, Salomon, and Redmond, 2001, in Innovation

doi:10.1080/13511610120106147
Location San Francisco Bay Area, CA
Population General
Sample size 1904
Factor analysis type exploratory factor analysis, Oblique rotation
Stepwise regression nan
Removal of insignificant variables yes
Reviewed by MWC

Abstract

We contest the derived demand paradigm for travel as a behavioural absolute. To the contrary, we suggest that travel has an intrinsic positive utility and is valued for its own sake, not just as a means of reaching a destination. We argue that the same positive characteristics that lead people to engage in travel as a recreational activity in itself are likely to motivate them to engage in apparently excess travel in the context of their mandatory and maintenance activities as well. This paper explores the conceptual basis of a positive utility for travel, and presents some results from an ongoing empirical study of attitudes toward travel. In modelling distance travelled (in each of 11 categories), we found that subjective variables such as Travel Liking, the adventure-seeker Personality trait, the travel stress Attitudinal factor, and the Excess Travel indicator added considerable explanatory power to the Demographic variables traditionally used in such models. It appears that, far from being completely determined by demographically based needs, the amount of travel demanded is heavily in uenced by one’s attitudes toward travel. This is not only true for discretionary (entertainment) purposes, as would be expected, but for more ‘mandatory’ purposes such as work/school-related activities as well. We are convinced that the demand for travel arises from a fundamental human need for mobility and other subjective characteristics, as well as from the external causes typically measured. To more accurately forecast travel demand and policy response, the role of those subjective characteristics needs to be understood much better than it is at present.

Factors

Variable Pattern loading
My commute is a real hassle (Convenience) -0.695
My commute trip is a useful transition between home and work (Lifestyle) 0.583
The traveling that I need to do interferes with doing other things I like (Convenience) -0.53
I use my commute time productively (Convenience) 0.467
Travel time is generally wasted time (Convenience) -0.461
Getting stuck in traffic doesn't bother me too much (Convenience) 0.419
Traveling is generally tiring for me (Comfort) -0.225
Variable Pattern loading
To improve air quality, I am willing to pay a little more to use an electric or other clean-fuel vehicle (Environmentalism) 0.641
We should raise price of gasoline to reduce congestion and air pollution (Environmentalism) 0.617
We need more public transportation, even if taxes have to pay for a lot of the costs (Transport policy) 0.612
I limit my auto travel to help improve congestion and air quality (Environmentalism) 0.372
We can find cost-effective technological solutions to the problem of air pollution (Environmentalism) 0.353
We need more highways, even if taxes have to pay for a lot of the costs (Transport policy) -0.194
Having shops and services within walking distance of my home is important to me (Res preference/perception) 0.243
Variable Pattern loading
Living in a multiple family unit wouldn't give me enough privacy (Res preference/perception) -0.617
I like living in a neighborhood where there is a lot going on (Res preference/perception) 0.486
Having shops and services within walking distance of my home is important to me (Res preference/perception) 0.401
I like to have a large yard at my home (Res preference/perception) -0.323
I'd rather have someone else do the driving (Mode-liking) 0.227
Variable Pattern loading
Traveling is boring (Convenience) 0.621
I like exploring new places (Lifestyle) -0.537
The only good thing about traveling is arriving at your destination (Convenience) 0.525
Getting there is half the fun (Travel liking) -0.465
Travel time is generally wasted time (Convenience) 0.379
Traveling makes me nervous (Safety) 0.201
Traveling is generally tiring for me (Comfort) 0.266
Variable Pattern loading
In terms of local travel - I have the freedom to go anywhere I want to (Convenience) 0.511
In terms of long-distance travel, I have the freedom to go anywhere I want to (Convenience) 0.422
The vehicles I travel in are comfortable (Comfort) 0.295
It is nice to be able to do errands on the way to or from work (Convenience) 0.269
I am willing to pay a toll to travel on an uncongested road (Convenience) 0.212
Variable Pattern loading
I worry about my safety when I travel (Safety) 0.544
Traveling makes me nervous (Safety) 0.537
Traveling is generally tiring for me (Comfort) 0.41
I'd rather have someone else do the driving (Mode-liking) 0.329
I tend to get sick when traveling (Comfort) 0.318
I am uncomfortable being around people I don't know when I travel (Comfort) 0.297
I like traveling alone (Lifestyle) -0.194
Variable Pattern loading
Adventurous (Lifestyle) 0.776
Variety seeking (Lifestyle) 0.695
Spontaneous (Lifestyle) 0.574
Risk taking (Lifestyle) 0.557
Like to stay close to home (Lifestyle) -0.435
Ambitious (Lifestyle) 0.422
Like moving at high speeds (Lifestyle) 0.398
Like being outdoors (Lifestyle) 0.385
On a routine (Lifestyle) -0.355
Like being independent (Lifestyle) 0.25
Aggressive (Lifestyle) 0.162
Patient (Lifestyle) 0.163
Like being in charge (Lifestyle) 0.199
Variable Pattern loading
Risk taking (Lifestyle) -0.192
Ambitious (Lifestyle) -0.217
Like moving at high speeds (Lifestyle) -0.345
Aggressive (Lifestyle) -0.599
Patient (Lifestyle) 0.532
Restless (Lifestyle) -0.389
Like being in charge (Lifestyle) -0.38
Variable Pattern loading
Like being alone (Lifestyle) 0.935
Like being independent (Lifestyle) 0.314
Variable Pattern loading
Like to stay close to home (Lifestyle) 0.168
Ambitious (Lifestyle) 0.33
Efficient (Lifestyle) 0.624
On time (Convenience) 0.371
Like a routine (Lifestyle) 0.364
Like being independent (Lifestyle) 0.301
Aggressive (Lifestyle) 0.312
Like being in charge (Lifestyle) 0.363
Variable Pattern loading
Work and family do not leave me enough time for myself (Lifestyle) 0.262
I wouldn't necessarily have to like my work that much, as long as I made enough money (Lifestyle) -0.037
I'd like to spend more time with my family and friends (Lifestyle) 0.585
My family and friends are more important to me than my work (Lifestyle) 0.472
I'd like to spend more time on social, environmental, or religious causes (Lifestyle) 0.418
Occasionally, I'd be willing to give up a day's pay to get a day off work (Lifestyle) 0.273
I'd like to spend more time on work (Lifestyle) -0.164
Variable Pattern loading
I often feel like I don't have much control over my life (Lifestyle) 0.72
I am generally satisfied with my life (Lifestyle) -0.618
Work and family do not leave me enough time for myself (Lifestyle) 0.357
I wouldn't necessarily have to like my work that much, as long as I made enough money (Lifestyle) 0.214
I feel that I am wasting time when I have to wait (Convenience) 0.16
Variable Pattern loading
To me, the car is a status symbol (Social norms) 0.698
A lot of the fun of having something nice is showing it off (Lifestyle) 0.518
To me, the car is nothing more than a convenient way to get around (Mode-liking) -0.411
The one who dies with the most toys wins (Other) 0.41
Variable Pattern loading
Work and family do not leave me enough time for myself (Lifestyle) 0.203
I feel that I am wasting time when I have to wait (Convenience) 0.156
My family and friends are more important to me than my work (Lifestyle) -0.233
I'm pretty much a workaholic (Lifestyle) 0.652
I'd like to spend more time on work (Lifestyle) 0.373
I generally try to spend some time each week just on myself (Lifestyle) -0.178
I don't like to stay in one place for long (Lifestyle) 0.171

Models

Dependent variable ln(Short-distance total miles per week + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1308.0
R2 0.391
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 3.732 0.0
Commute speed (objective) 0.0215 0.0
Liking for short-distance travel by bus 0.0525 0.01
Adventure seeking 0.123 0.0
Percent of time a vehicle is available 0.00252 0.002
Female -0.167 0.0
Personal income category (1–6) 0.0895 0.0
Suburban 0.364 0.0
Dependent variable ln(Short-distance commute miles per week + 1)
Model type Linear regression
Sample size 1313.0
R2 0.33
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 3.421 0.0
Commute speed (objective) 0.0303 0.0
Female -0.201 0.0
Age category (1-5) -0.212 0.0
Personal income category 0.123 0.0
Suburban 0.482 0.0
Dependent variable ln(Short distance non-commute work or school related miles per week + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1313.0
R2 0.113
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant -0.52 0.041
Commute speed (objective) 0.00672 0.014
Frequency of short-distance trips to eat a meal (objective) 0.102 0.024
Frequency of short-distance trips taking others where they need to go (objective) 0.218 0.0
Liking for long-distance work or school related travel 0.132 0.005
Workaholic 0.189 0.002
Adventure seeking 0.157 0.002
Personal income category (1-6) 0.106 0.001
Number of people in household 0.114 0.006
Dependent variable ln(Short distance entertainment miles per week + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1301.0
R2 0.139
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 0.917 0.003
Frequency of short-distance trips to eat a meal (objective) 0.147 0.0
Liking of short-distance entertainment/recreational/social travel 0.144 0.001
Travel stress -0.125 0.005
Feel attached to neighborhood 0.139 0.007
Frustrated -0.109 0.007
Adventure seeking 0.132 0.002
Excess travel indicator 0.0214 0.013
Percent of time a vehicle is available 0.00494 0.0
Personal income category (1-6) 0.0751 0.002
Age category (1-5) -0.171 0.001
Number of people in the household -0.0862 0.001
Pleasant Hill 0.219 0.003
Dependent variable ln(Short-distance personal vehicle miles per week + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1308.0
R2 0.523
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 1.301 0.0
Commute speed (objective) 0.0271 0.0
Pro-environmental policy -0.133 0.0
Travel freedom 0.106 0.011
Adventure seeking 0.144 0.0
Percent of time a vehicle is available 0.0204 0.0
Number of personal vehicles in the household 0.0698 0.018
Personal income category (1-6) 0.0934 0.0
Suburban 0.388 0.0
Dependent variable ln(Short distance walk miles per week + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1351.0
R2 0.265
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 0.842 0.0
Liking of short-distance personal vehicle travel -0.12 0.0
Liking of short-distance walking/jogging/cycling travel 0.424 0.0
Family/community oriented -0.0781 0.027
Adventure seeking 0.114 0.0
Excess travel indicator 0.0339 0.0
Percent of time a vehicle is available -0.00297 0.007
Concord -0.327 0.0
Pleasant Hill -0.152 0.019
Dependent variable ln(total long-distance miles per year + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1263.0
R2 0.278
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 7.714 0.0
Frequency of short-distance trips to eat a meal (objective) 0.192 0.001
Frequency of short-distance commute trips (objective) -0.258 0.004
Frequency of short-distance entertainment/recreational/social trips 0.153 0.012
Liking for personal vehicle travel -0.195 0.001
Travel stress -0.213 0.002
Commute benefit -0.191 0.002
Frustrated -0.197 0.003
Status seeking -0.142 0.025
Adventure seeking 0.23 0.0
Excess travel indicator 0.0594 0.0
Limitations on flying -0.726 0.002
Respondent has a driver's license 1.0218 0.013
Number of others in household with driver's license 0.291 0.0
Personal income category (1-6) 0.336 0.0
Number of people in the household -0.212 0.0
Concord -0.653 0.0
Pleasant Hill -0.292 0.014
Dependent variable ln(long distance work or school miles traveled per year + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1307.0
R2 0.22
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 0.222 0.761
Frequency of short-distance trips to eat a meal (objective) 0.228 0.03
Frequency of short-distance trips for work or school-related activities (objective) 0.197 0.004
Liking for long-distance personal vehicle travel -0.382 0.001
Liking for long-distance work/school-related travel 0.874 0.0
Liking for long-distance travel overall -0.429 0.002
Adventure seeking 0.624 0.0
Organizer 0.317 0.014
Excess travel indicator 0.0567 0.036
Female -0.635 0.003
Personal income category (1-6) 0.756 0.0
Dependent variable ln(Long distance entertainment miles traveled per year + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1298.0
R2 0.201
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 4.827 0.0
Short-distance weekly miles traveled to eat a meal (objective) 0.0149 0.001
Frequency of short-distance trips for entertainment/recreational/social purposes (objective) 0.334 0.0
Liking for short-distance personal vehicle travel -0.222 0.002
Travel stress -0.322 0.0
Commute benefit -0.256 0.001
Frustrated -0.276 0.002
Workaholic -0.237 0.012
Excess travel indicator 0.09897 0.0
Limitations on flying -0.623 0.037
Female 0.425 0.001
Respondent has driver's license 1.27 0.016
Personal income category (1-6) 0.264 0.0
Concord -0.946 0.0
Pleasant Hill -0.437 0.003
Dependent variable ln(long distance miles by personal vehicle per year + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1335.0
R2 0.104
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 2.972 0.0
Frequency of short-distance trips for work/school-related activities (objective) 0.116 0.029
Frequency of short-distance trips for entertainment purposes (objective) 0.195 0.021
Weekly miles traveled by personal vehicle (objective) 0.00207 0.0
Liking for short-distance personal vehicle travel -0.267 0.01
Liking for short-distance bus travel -0.281 0.001
Liking for short-distance travel to eat a meal -0.257 0.028
Liking for long-distance travel by personal vehicle 0.462 0.0
Frustrated -0.287 0.003
Excess travel indicator 0.0737 0.0
Percent of time a vehicle is available 0.0133 0.0
Concord 0.467 0.015
Dependent variable ln(Long distance air miles traveled per year + 1)
Model type linear regression
Sample size 1302.0
R2 0.294
Adjusted R2
Pseudo R2 (nan) nan
AIC nan
BIC nan
Log-likelihood at zero nan
Log-likelihood at constants nan
Log-likelihood at convergence nan
Variable Coefficient p-value
Constant 7.573 0.0
Frequency of short-distance trips to eat a meal (objective) 0.345 0.0
Frequency of short-distance commute trips (objective) -0.488 0.002
Frequency of short-distance trips for work/school-related activities (objective) 0.139 0.014
Liking for personal vehicle travel -0.364 0.0
Liking for work/school-related travel 0.215 0.018
Travel stress -0.265 0.03
Commute benefit -0.237 0.028
Pro-hi density 0.59 0.0
Frustrated -0.406 0.0
Adventure seeking 0.391 0.0
Female 0.399 0.025
Age category (1-5) -0.367 0.008
Number of people 6-15 years old in household -0.798 0.0
Personal income category (1-6) 0.647 0.0
Concord -1.277 0.0

The Attitudes and Travel Database is produced with support from the Center for Teaching Old Models New Tricks at Arizona State University, a University Transportation Center sponsored by the US Department of Transportation through Grant No. 69A3551747116.

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